The Development of Diagnostic Tests for Proving Malaria through History Malaria can last for three and up to five years, if left untreated, and depending on the cause, essay on malaria recrudesce. Another unique treatment of malaria is the use of the herb Artemisia annua. Service Features Custom Written Fully Referenced Words per Page Any Citation Style 12 point Courier New Font Double spacing. Hemingway, J, essay on malaria. Free Extras Plagiarism FREE Papers FREE Title Page FREE Bibliography FREE Formatting FREE Delivery.
1. Introduction
The parasites causing malaria are highly specific, with man as the only host and mosquitoes as the only vector. Essay on malaria year, , people are affected by malaria, and while less than one percent of these people die, there are still an estimated 1, deaths per year. While Malaria was one of the first infectious diseases essay on malaria be treated successfully with a drug, scientist are still looking for a cure or at least a vaccination today Cann, Though many people are aware that malaria is a disease, they are unaware that it is life threatening, kills over a million people each year, and is a very elusive target for antimalarial drugs Treatment of Malaria, Being a very specific disease, malaria is caused by only four protozoal parasites: Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium ovale, and Plasmodium malariae.
Not only is the disease specific, but the parasites are too, with only 60 of species of female Anopheles mosquitoes as vectors, essay on malaria. With the exception of Plasmodia Malariae which may affect other primates, all parasites of malaria have only one host, Homo sapiens, essay on malaria. Because some mosquitoes contain substances toxic to Plasmodium in their cells, not all species of mosquitoes are vectors of Plasmodium. Although very specific, malaria still causes disruption of over three hundred million people worldwide each year Cann, The life cycle of the parasite causing malaria exists between two organisms, humans and the Anopheles mosquito.
When a female mosquito bites a human, she injects an anticoagulant saliva which keeps the human bleeding and ensures an even flowing meal for her. When the vector injects her saliva into the human, it also injects ten percent of her sporozoite load. Once in the bloodstream, essay on malaria, the Plasmodium travel to the liver and reproduce by asexual reproduction. These liver cells then burst essay on malaria the parasites back into the bloodstream where they then enter red blood cells, essay on malaria. Here, the Plasmodium feed on hemoglobin and reproduce again by asexual reproduction. Afterwards, the red blood cells burst and release the parasites. Some of the parasites released from red blood cells may be able to replicate by sexual reproduction.
When the host has been bitten by a mosquito again, infected blood inters the mosquito. Here, sexual forms of the parasite develop in the stomach of the Anopheles mosquito completing the parasites life cycle Herman, People infected malaria have several symptoms including fever, chills, headaches, weakness, and an enlarged spleen Herman, The amount of time for symptoms to appear differs depending on the form of the parasite. Those infected with Plasmodium falciparum experience symptoms after about twenty-four hours, those infected with Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium ovale produce symptoms after a forty-eight hour interval, and after seventy-two hours Plasmodium malariae begin causing fever and chills Cann, Most malaria cases seem to cluster in the tropical climate areas extending into the subtropics, and malaria is especially endemic in Africa.
In eighty percent of all reported cases were in Africa, while the remainder of most cases came from nine countries: India, Brazil, Afghanistan, Sri-Lanka, Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, Cambodia, and China. Globally, the essay on malaria circulates in almost one hundred countries causing up to 1, deaths annually Cann, Because there is no definite cure for malaria, scientists are trying their hardest to contain the parasite to where it now exists. The range of a vector from a suitable habitat is fortunately limited to a maximum of two miles Cann, If this were the only factor, scientist would have no problem containing the disease. Humans migrate, essay on malaria, and over time the disease has slowly spread throughout the tropics. Major problems also exist when ignorant tourists to Africa transfer the parasite to non malarious areas Graham, Biologists are also using control measures, such as spraying DDT to kill mosquitoes, draining stagnant water, and using the widespread use of nets to contain the mosquito itself Herman, Because of the worsening situation, the World Health Organization WHO declared malaria control to be a global priority Limited Imagination, Although limiting the spread of malaria is not easy, finding a cure has presented several problems in recent years.
One main reason finding a cure for malaria is so hard is that different strains in different parts of the world require different drugs, all of which soon lose their effectiveness as the parasite evolves resistance to them Limited Imagination, Secondly, once the parasite enters the human bloodstream, essay on malaria, it changes form several times inside the body, making it an elusive target for the immune system Cann, In the past several decades, scientists essay on malaria developed many drugs that have all fallen victim to the resistance of the Plasmodium parasites. Such drugs include chloroquine, essay on malaria, pyrimethamine, chloroguanide, desipramine, halofantrine, essay on malaria, mefloquine, and arteether Herman, Scientists essay on malaria often find their drugs effectiveness wearing off as malarial parasites build tolerance to them Graham, essay on malaria, Several drugs used to treat the disease have been around for centuries.
One such drug is quinine, a compound extracted from the bark of the cinchona tree. This drug essay on malaria a secret of the locals of the Amazon jungle for centuries until European missionaries learned of its use. The trouble remains that quinine is expensive to harvest, is extremely hard to synthesize, and fails to prevent relapses Limited Imagination, Another unique treatment of malaria is the use of the herb Artemisia annua. This essay on malaria has been used for centuries in traditional Chinese medicine to treat malaria and fever. Neither of these drugs are one hundred percent effective Herman, While the need for malarial vaccines grows urgent, so does the number of people affected each year.
Although it is caused by a highly specific parasite, malaria still seems to kill off between one essay on malaria two million people annually. As the Plasmodium parasites essay on malaria more and more to resist the effect of antimalarials, it becomes harder for scientist to find a cure Treatment of Malaria, Cann, Alan J. Medical technology has seemed to advance enough so that doctors are able to perform brain…. Close Menu Essay Topics. Related Essays Brain Transplants Medical technology has seemed to advance enough so that doctors are able to perform brain…. Understanding Coeliac Disease Coeliac disease is a genetic condition that is caused by an inability to digest gluten, essay on malaria.
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Naturally- and artificially-created catastrophes, such as wars and mass people migration from endemic areas, could favor recrudescing of malaria. Once achieved, eradication would be maintained if the vector capacities are low and prevention measures are implemented. The increased number of malaria cases worldwide, the recrudesce of indigenous malaria cases in the countries where the disease has been eradicated, the existence of mosquitoes that transmit malaria and the number of imported malaria cases in Croatia are alarming facts. Health surveillance, including obligatory and appropriate prophylaxis for travelers to endemic areas, remains a necessary public health care measure pointed at managing malaria in Croatia.
The WHO report on malaria in shows that it is difficult to achieve two crucial goals of a Global Technical Strategy for Malaria. Since , there has been a significant reduction in the burden of malaria, but analysis suggests a slowdown, and even an increase in the number of cases between and Thus, the number of malaria cases in has risen to million, compared to million cases in and million cases in Figure 3 presents the reported number of malaria cases per WHO region from — [ 1 , 90 ]. The most critical step in the global eradication of malaria is to reduce the number of cases in countries with the highest burden many in Africa.
The number of deaths from disease is declining, thus, in there were , deaths from malaria globally, compared with , in , and , deaths in Figure 4 presents the number of malaria deaths from [ 1 , 90 ]. Despite the delay in global progress, there are countries with decreasing malaria cases during The number of countries reporting less than 10, malaria cases is growing, from 37 countries in , to 44 in , and to 46 in Furthermore, the number of countries with fewer than indigenous malaria cases growing from 15 in , to 26 countries in [ 1 ]. Funding in malaria has not changed much. The USA was the largest single international donor for malaria in [ 1 , 91 ]. The most common global method of preventing malaria is insecticide-treated bed nets ITNs. The WHO report on insecticide resistance showed that mosquitoes became resistant to the four most frequently used classes of insecticides pyrethroids, organochlorines, carbamates, and organophosphates , which are widespread in all malaria-endemic countries [ 1 , 7 , 92 ].
Drug resistance is a severe global problem, but the immediate threat is low, and ACT remains an effective therapy in most malaria-endemic countries [ 1 , 93 ]. The WHO Global Technical Strategy for Malaria by is the eradication of malaria from at least ten countries that were malaria-endemic in [ 1 ]. The march towards malaria eradication is uneven. Indigenous cases in Europe, Central Asia, and some countries in Latin America are now sporadic. However, in many sub-Saharan African countries, elimination of malaria is more complicated, and there are indications that progress in this direction has delayed. Elimination of vivax and human knowlesi malaria infections are another challenge [ 7 ].
The campaign to eradicate malaria began in the s but failed globally due to problems involving the resistance of mosquitoes to the insecticides used, the resistance of malaria parasites to medication used in the treatment, and administrative issues. Additionally, the first eradication campaigns never included most of Africa, where malaria is the most common. Although the majority of forms of malaria are successfully treated with the existing antimalarials, morbidity and mortality caused by malaria are continually increasing. This issue is the consequence of the ever-increasing development of parasite resistance to drugs, but also the increased mosquito resistance to insecticides, and has become one of the most critical problems in controlling malaria over recent years.
Resistance has been reported to all antimalarial drugs. Therefore, research into finding and testing new antimalarials, as well as a potential vaccine, is still ongoing, mainly due to the sudden mass migration of humans birds, parasite disease vector insects from areas with a large and diverse infestation. The process towards eradication in some countries confirms that current tools could be sufficient to eradicate malaria. The spread of insecticide resistance among the vectors and the rising ACT failures indicate that eradication of malaria by existing means might not be enough. Thus, given the already complicated problem of overseeing and preventing the spread of the disease, it will be necessary to supplement and change the principles, strategic control, and treatment of malaria.
Writing the manuscript: J. and M. and A. This research received no external funding. The article processing charges APC was funded by Faculty of Dental Medicine and Health, Osijek, Croatia. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. National Library of Medicine Rockville Pike , Bethesda MD , USA. NCBI Skip to main content Skip to navigation Resources How To About NCBI Accesskeys My NCBI Sign in to NCBI Sign Out. PMC US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health. Search database PMC All Databases Assembly Biocollections BioProject BioSample BioSystems Books ClinVar Conserved Domains dbGaP dbVar Gene Genome GEO DataSets GEO Profiles GTR HomoloGene Identical Protein Groups MedGen MeSH NCBI Web Site NLM Catalog Nucleotide OMIM PMC PopSet Protein Protein Clusters Protein Family Models PubChem BioAssay PubChem Compound PubChem Substance PubMed SNP SRA Structure Taxonomy ToolKit ToolKitAll ToolKitBookgh Search term.
Journal List Microorganisms v. Published online Jun doi: PMCID: PMC Jasminka Talapko 1 Faculty of Dental Medicine and Health, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Crkvena 21, HR Osijek, Croatia; rh. Find articles by Jasminka Talapko. Ivana Škrlec 1 Faculty of Dental Medicine and Health, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Crkvena 21, HR Osijek, Croatia; rh. Find articles by Ivana Škrlec. Tamara Alebić 2 Faculty of Medicine, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Josipa Huttlera 4, HR Osijek, Croatia; moc. Find articles by Tamara Alebić. Melita Jukić 2 Faculty of Medicine, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Josipa Huttlera 4, HR Osijek, Croatia; moc.
Aleksandar Včev 1 Faculty of Dental Medicine and Health, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Crkvena 21, HR Osijek, Croatia; rh. Find articles by Aleksandar Včev. Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. zmdf celrksi ; Tel. Received Apr 9; Accepted Jun Copyright © by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Abstract Malaria is a severe disease caused by parasites of the genus Plasmodium , which is transmitted to humans by a bite of an infected female mosquito of the species Anopheles.
Keywords: Anopheles , antimalarials, malaria, Plasmodium. Introduction Malaria affected an estimated million people causing , deaths in globally. Discovery of Malaria It is believed that the history of malaria outbreaks goes back to the beginnings of civilization. The Development of Diagnostic Tests for Proving Malaria through History Malaria can last for three and up to five years, if left untreated, and depending on the cause, may recrudesce. Table 1 Diagnostic tests for proving malaria. Advantages Disadvantages Direct methods Microscopic analysis Fast test, cheap Required much experience as well as equipment Rapid diagnostic tests Quick and simple Less sensitive and accurate, price Molecular tests Correct determination of type, highly sensitive and accurate Price, long-term in a large number of cases Indirect methods Indirect immunofluorescence Specific, sensitive Long time to perform, subjective evaluation of results ELISA Correct determination of type, specific, sensitive Long time to perform, price.
Open in a separate window. Malaria Treatment through History Already in the 2nd century BC, a sweet sagewort plant named Qinghai Latin Artemisia annua was used for the treatment of malaria in China [ 38 ]. Table 2 Overview of the most commonly used antimalarials. falciparum to the medication Primaquine The 8-aminoquinoline derivative Infections with P. ovale , prophylaxis and treatment of malaria Interferes in transport chain of electrons and destroys parasite mitochondria Anorexia, nausea, anemia, headaches, contraindicated in pregnancy and children under 4 years of age Prevent relapse in P. ovale infection Doxycycline Pfizer Inc. New York Prophylaxis in areas with chloroquine resistance and against mefloquine resistant P.
falciparum Inhibition of protein synthesis by binding to 30S ribosomal subunit Gastrointestinal disorders, nausea, vomiting, photosensitivity Effective and cheap, use for treatment and prophylaxis in all malarious areas Mefloquine USA army and WHO Multiresistant P. falciparum strains, prophylaxis and treatment of malaria Damage to parasite membrane Gastrointestinal disorders, CNS disorder, contraindicated in pregnancy and patients with epilepsy Partial resistance, brain damage Proguanil chloroguanide Biguanide derivate Prophylaxis in infections with P. falciparum resistance. CNS—central nervous system. Malaria in Europe In Europe, malaria outbreaks occurred in the Roman Empire [ 63 , 64 ] and the 17th century. Malaria in Croatia In Croatia, the first written document that testifies to the prevention of malaria is the Statute of the town of Korčula from Figure 1.
Figure 2. Malaria Trends in the World The WHO report on malaria in shows that it is difficult to achieve two crucial goals of a Global Technical Strategy for Malaria. Figure 3. Reported malaria cases per WHO region from — Figure 4. Reported malaria deaths per WHO region from — Conclusions The campaign to eradicate malaria began in the s but failed globally due to problems involving the resistance of mosquitoes to the insecticides used, the resistance of malaria parasites to medication used in the treatment, and administrative issues. Abbreviations ACT Artemisinin-based combination therapy CNS Central nervous system DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane ELISA Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay FDA Food and Drug Administration IFA Immunofluorescence test ITN Insecticide-treated bed nets PCR Polymerase chain reaction PfHRP2 Plasmodium falciparum histidine-rich protein 2 RDT Rapid diagnostic tests WHO World Health Organization.
Author Contributions Writing the manuscript: J. Funding This research received no external funding. Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest. References 1. World Health Organization. World Malaria Report WHO; Geneva, Switzerland: White N. Pan American Health Organization. Epidemiological Alert, Increase of Malaria in the Americas. PAHO; Washington, DC, USA: Dhiman S. Are malaria elimination efforts on right track? An analysis of gains achieved and challenges ahead. Walker N. Antinori S. Biology of human malaria plasmodia including Plasmodium knowlesi. Ashley E. Singh B. Human Infections and Detection of Plasmodium knowlesi. Vuk I. Malaria and antimalarial drugs. Farm Glas. Soulard V. Plasmodium falciparum full life cycle and Plasmodium ovale liver stages in humanized mice.
Josling G. Blut A. Cowman A. Malaria, Biology and Disease. Cartwright F. Disease and History. Naklada Ljevak; Zagreb, Croatia: Lehrer S. Vitezi Medicine. Prosveta; Beograd, Serbia: Moss W. The History of Malaria and its Control. Public Health. Dugacki V. Rudolf Battara operation in Nin in , the first systematic battle attempt against malaria in Croatia. Jovic S. Istorija Medicine i Zdravstvene Kulture na tlu Dansnje Vojvodine — II. Matica srpska, Srpska akademija nauka i umetnosti; Novi Sad, Serbia: Tan S. Charles Laveran — , Nobel laureate pioneer of malaria. Saifi M. Malaria: Patterns of relapse and resistance. King Saud Univ. Chu C. Management of relapsing Plasmodium vivax malaria.
Expert Rev. Murphy S. Malaria diagnostics in clinical trials. Tangpukdee N. Malaria diagnosis, a brief review. Korean J. Trampuz A. Clinical review, Severe malaria. She R. Comparison of Immunofluorescence Antibody Testing and Two Enzyme Immunoassays in the Serologic Diagnosis of Malaria. Travel Med. Evaluation of a malaria antibody enzyme immunoassay for use in blood screening. Oswaldo Cruz. Kakkilaya B. Rapid Diagnosis of Malaria. Abba K. Rapid diagnostic tests for diagnosing uncomplicated non-falciparum or Plasmodium vivax malaria in endemic countries.
Cochrane Database Syst. Guidelines for the Treatment of Malaria. Malaria Rapid Diagnostic Test Performance, Results of WHO Product Testing of Malaria RDTs, Round 8 — WHO; Geneva, Switzerland: Ranadive N. Limitations of Rapid Diagnostic Testing in Patients with Suspected Malaria, A Diagnostic Accuracy Evaluation from Swaziland, a Low-Endemicity Country Aiming for Malaria Elimination. Berhane A. Rapid diagnostic tests failing to detect Plasmodium falciparum infections in Eritrea, an investigation of reported false negative RDT results. Kozycki C. False-negative malaria rapid diagnostic tests in Rwanda: Impact of Plasmodium falciparum isolates lacking hrp2 and declining malaria transmission. World Health Organization False-negative RDT results and implications of new reports of P.
Murray C. Update on Rapid Diagnostic Testing for Malaria. Mathison B. Update on Malaria Diagnostics and Test Utilization. Rougemont M. Detection of Four Plasmodium Species in Blood from Humans by 18S rRNA Gene Subunit-Based and Species-Specific Real-Time PCR Assays. Hsu E. The history of qing hao in the Chinese materia medica. Achan J. Quinine, an old anti-malarial drug in a modern world: Role in the treatment of malaria. Meshnick S. The History of Antimalarial Drugs. In: Rosenthal P. Antimalarial Chemotherapy, Mechanisms of Action, Resistance, and New Directions in Drug Discovery. Humana Press; Totowa NJ, USA: Antimalarial Drug Combination Therapy. Report of a WHO Technical Consultation. Guo Z. Artemisinin anti-malarial drugs in China.
Acta Pharm. Ray D. Organochlorine and Pyrethroid Insecticides. Flannery E. Antimalarial drug discovery—Approaches and progress towards new medicines. Zhao X. Exploring the spatiotemporal drivers of malaria elimination in Europe. Karunamoorthi K. Malaria vaccine, a future hope to curtail the global malaria burden. Moreno A. Coelho C. Advances in malaria vaccine development, report from the malaria vaccine symposium. NPJ Vaccines. Mahmoudi S. Vaccines Immunother. Rénia L. Assessing Malaria Vaccine Efficacy. In: Manguin S. Here, the Plasmodium feed on hemoglobin and reproduce again by asexual reproduction.
Afterwards, the red blood cells burst and release the parasites. Some of the parasites released from red blood cells may be able to replicate by sexual reproduction. When the host has been bitten by a mosquito again, infected blood inters the mosquito. Here, sexual forms of the parasite develop in the stomach of the Anopheles mosquito completing the parasites life cycle Herman, People infected malaria have several symptoms including fever, chills, headaches, weakness, and an enlarged spleen Herman, The amount of time for symptoms to appear differs depending on the form of the parasite.
Those infected with Plasmodium falciparum experience symptoms after about twenty-four hours, those infected with Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium ovale produce symptoms after a forty-eight hour interval, and after seventy-two hours Plasmodium malariae begin causing fever and chills Cann, Most malaria cases seem to cluster in the tropical climate areas extending into the subtropics, and malaria is especially endemic in Africa. In eighty percent of all reported cases were in Africa, while the remainder of most cases came from nine countries: India, Brazil, Afghanistan, Sri-Lanka, Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, Cambodia, and China.
Globally, the disease circulates in almost one hundred countries causing up to 1,, deaths annually Cann, Because there is no definite cure for malaria, scientists are trying their hardest to contain the parasite to where it now exists. The range of a vector from a suitable habitat is fortunately limited to a maximum of two miles Cann, If this were the only factor, scientist would have no problem containing the disease. Humans migrate, however, and over time the disease has slowly spread throughout the tropics.
Major problems also exist when ignorant tourists to Africa transfer the parasite to non malarious areas Graham, Biologists are also using control measures, such as spraying DDT to kill mosquitoes, draining stagnant water, and using the widespread use of nets to contain the mosquito itself Herman, Because of the worsening situation, the World Health Organization WHO declared malaria control to be a global priority Limited Imagination, Firstly, the most achievable solution is to keep our environment clean. If our living atmosphere the rapidly spreading disease will surely come to an end.
Secondly, campaigns and researches can be done to inform people to stay protected. Scientists should come up with a proper treatment to cure malaria. Furthermore, to overcome the problem of poverty, people should wear fully covered clothes and use treated nets at night. Evidently, in regions like north America and some European countries, fewer cases of malaria were reported. Welcome to the world of case studies that can bring you high grades! Here, at ACaseStudy. com, we deliver professionally written papers, and the best grades for you from your professors are guaranteed! I'm Anna.
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